Socio-Economic Impact of Amphetamine Type Stimulants

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The Socio-Economic Impact of Amphetamine Type Stimulants in New Zealand

Final Report

Dr. Chris Wilkins, James Reilly, Emily Rose, Debashish Roy, Dr. Megan Pledger, Arier Lee

Centre for Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation
Massey University, P O Box 6137, Wellesley St, Auckland

September 2004


Preface

This report presents the findings of research on the socio-economic impact of Amphetamine Type Stimulants (ATS) in New Zealand.

The work presented draws on a number of innovative research approaches and methodologies, many of which were tried for the first time in New Zealand during the project.

The central aim of the research was to inform the policy response, best practice and strategic planning by New Zealand Police and other relevant government agencies with regard to the recent rise in the use and manufacture of ATS drugs. However because many agencies other than the Police deal with drug problems, the findings reported here have relevance for any organisations responding to ATS problems.

Two other reports, produced around the same time as this work was being carried out, also provide information relevant to New Zealand's response to ATS.

The first was the full report of the secondary analysis of ATS drug use from the 2001 National Drug Survey (Wilkins et al. Amphetamine Type Stimulant Drug Use in New Zealand) (Wilkins et al., 2004c). This was presented to Police earlier this year as part of the ATS project.

The second piece of research was the full report of the one-site pilot of the New Zealand Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring System (Wilkins et al., A Local Pilot of the New Zealand Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring System (NZ-ADAM) (Wilkins et al., 2004b).

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Executive Summary

This report presents a large amount of new research on Amphetamine Type Stimulant (ATS) drug use in New Zealand, much of it employing research methodologies never used before in New Zealand. ATS are a group of synthetic illicit drug types which include methamphetamine, ecstasy and crystal methamphetamine (known as 'ice'). This section summarises the main findings of the research. The report includes new analysis of data from the 2001 National Drug Survey, a survey of frequent methamphetamine users in Auckland, key informant surveys of drug enforcement officers and drug treatment workers, analysis of drug treatment statistics related to ATS, and a local pilot study of the drug use of arrestees conducted in police watch-houses.

The research in this report demonstrates that ATS are now serious drugs of abuse in New Zealand. In 2001, one in ten New Zealanders aged 18-29 had used an ATS drug in the last year. The level of amphetamine use among 15-19 year olds may be higher in New Zealand than in Australia. The illicit trade in ATS drugs in New Zealand is of the equivalent dollar value as the illicit trade in cannabis and may have effectively doubled the dollar value of the illegal trade in drugs in New Zealand in less than ten years. In the case of methamphetamine the proceeds are likely to be concentrated among a relatively small number of local organised criminal gangs who were instrumental in the introduction of methamphetamine manufacture to New Zealand.

The secondary analysis of the National Drug Survey findings highlighted the greater risks and harms associated with frequent ATS use and identified the risk that increased ATS use may pose in terms of the spread of intravenous drug use and the enhancement of the demand for other 'hard' drug types. Attention was also drawn to users of crystal methamphetamine as the ATS drug users with the highest levels of daily use, poly drug use, intravenous drug use and opioid use. These findings suggest law enforcement and other agencies should focus on frequent ATS and crystal methamphetamine users as priorities in the effort against ATS.

Many frequent users of methamphetamine reported pre-existing mental health problems including tendencies to self-harm. Use of methamphetamine increased these individuals' levels of psychological problems such as 'anxiety', 'mood swings', 'short temper', 'paranoia', and 'depression' and the level of suicidal thoughts and attempts. These findings suggest frequent methamphetamine users should be approached with caution and reassurance to av triggering any violent defensive or self-harm response. Methamphetamine users' increased propensity for self-harm should also be taken into account when they are detained in custody.

The arrestees studied were many times more likely to use methamphetamine and crystal methamphetamine than the general population. Twenty-one percent of arrestees had used amphetamines in the last month and 9% had used these just before committing an offence. Arrestees reported that the use of these drug types was a factor in their criminal offending and increased their likelihood of becoming angry. About a quarter of the arrestees who recently used amphetamines considered their use of these drugs to have played a major part in the activities they were subsequently arrested for. Amphetamines, along with alcohol, were the drugs most likely to make arrestees feel angry. Arrestees carried out some of their driving while under the influence of ATS drugs. However, cannabis followed by alcohol was the drug most often combined with driving. The high level of drug use among arrestees and the potential for their drug induced actions to impact on others, through violent crime and intoxicated driving, make them an appropriate target group for drug counselling and drug treatment services. Every effort should be made to provide such advice and ensure access to drug treatment institutions for those arrestees who are willing to undertake programmes. Contact with drug counselling may be able to be arranged while the arrestee is in the criminal justice system but this service should be provided independent of Police and Corrections.

Frequent methamphetamine users were often involved in other illegal activities such as drug dealing and drug manufacture. One third of the frequent methamphetamine users interviewed had sold methamphetamine and about one in five had manufactured it or exchanged it for stolen property. Measures which impact upon frequent methamphetamine users within the community (for example, either incarceration or referral into drug treatment) are therefore likely to have a disproportionately greater impact on overall drug use, drug harm and drug trafficking.

The rise of ATS drug use may be transforming the nature of the sale of illicit drugs in New Zealand. About half of amphetamine buyers contacted their drug dealers by mobile phone or texting, while nearly two thirds of cannabis buyers visited a house or flat. The amphetamine market was smaller and more secretive and insulated than the cannabis market. Only 5% of the arrestees purchasing amphetamine, compared to about half of the arrestees purchasing cannabis, purchased their respective drugs from drug or 'tinny' house. All the amphetamine sellers reported selling only to 'close friends and family members', whereas cannabis sellers sold at least 'some' of their cannabis to 'casual acquaintances' and 'complete strangers'. Drug enforcement tactics may need to be adapted to more effectively impact on these more clandestine markets.

The new groups of methamphetamine users identified in the key informants surveys are consistent with the diffusion of methamphetamine use from the 'originator' sub-cultures, such as the dance party community and motorcycle gangs, to broader society which includes lower socio-economic groups and Maori and Pacific peoples. The reports of increased drug dealing by methamphetamine users and a greater cross section of people selling the drug are consistent with the spread of methamphetamine to wider sections of society. The sale of smaller weights of methamphetamine at lower prices and reported sales of methamphetamine from cannabis drug houses, suggest marketing strategies aimed at lower socio economic groups, teenagers and traditional cannabis users. These groups may be less able to control their drug use and more likely to impose costs on family, friends and the wider community than middle class users. The demographic characteristics of the ATS using population are an important determinate of the social impact of ATS and should be continued to be monitored.

There was some evidence that law enforcement is now impacting on ATS. Sixty percent of frequent methamphetamine users noticed more law enforcement activity directed against methamphetamine in the last six months. A third of frequent users reported more arrests of other users they knew. Ten percent of frequent users felt law enforcement had made it more difficult to obtain methamphetamine in the last six months. Continued law enforcement pressure is required to suppress this trade and to separate methamphetamine from the traditional cannabis market and in particular prevent its sale from cannabis 'tinny' houses.

The levels of violence reported to be associated with methamphetamine use, and the high levels of violence associated with the illicit manufacture and trade in this drug, justify the targeting of methamphetamine over the traditional trade in cannabis and LSD. The rapidity with which ATS drugs have emerged and become entrenched in New Zealand indicates the need for an ongoing research capacity which can act as an early warning of the rise of a new illicit drug type and the nature of harms to expect, such as increased intravenous administration or the greater use of other drug types. Research is also required to provide some understanding of the impact an illicit drug may have on violence and general criminality. The Police National Headquarters of New Zealand Police has made important progress in establishing research programmes to meet these requirements.

There may also be a need to challenge the new economic power of the gangs and drug dealers involved in the manufacture and sale of ATS drug types in order to effectively control organised crime. For example, consideration may need to be given to stronger asset confiscation laws around drug manufacture and drug dealing.

Key findings

Prevalence of ATS use

About one in ten New Zealanders aged 18-29, or about 100, 000 people nationwide, had used an ATS drug in the last year. About one-third of these users were frequent users (i. e. monthly or more often).

The level of ATS drug use in New Zealand was similar or slightly lower than in Australia. This was particularly the case for ecstasy while the level of amphetamine use between the two countries was closer. The level of amphetamine use among 15-19 year olds appeared to be higher in New Zealand than in Australia.

Patterns of use

Poly drug use was common among ATS drug users in New Zealand. ATS users were many times more likely than the general population to use high potency cannabis, LSD, magic mushrooms, cocaine, GHB (Gamma-hydroxybutyrate), Ketamine, Rush and tranquillisers. Ice users exhibited the highest level of poly drug use, including relatively high levels of opioid use.

Intravenous drug use was also many times higher among the ATS using population than the general population. One in five frequent methamphetamine users (i. e. monthly or more often) had injected methamphetamine in the last six months.

Two thirds of the frequent methamphetamine users interviewed reported binging on methamphetamine in the last six months (i. e. using continuously for 48 hours or more). The average frequency of binging was once a fortnight. A binge could last for many days on end.

Demographics of the ATS using population

As with other drug using populations ATS drug users were disproportionately male and aged 18-29, with the heaviest use among 20-24 year olds. However, several characteristics of the ATS using population set them apart from other illicit drug using populations. ATS drug users had high levels of full time employment, came from a range of occupational backgrounds including professionals, earned mid-level incomes and had relatively high levels of educational achievement. Large numbers of ATS drug users, including frequent users, were European. Disproportionately more ATS users lived in urban settings, in the upper half of the North Island and in Auckland.

Harms from the use of ATS drugs

Approximately one third of those who had used an ATS drug in the last year reported experiencing harm in at least one area of their lives from the use of these drug types. About half of the frequent methamphetamine users interviewed reported harm in the areas of 'friendship and social life' (55%), 'health' (55%), and 'energy and vitality' (53%) from their methamphetamine use. The harms that frequent methamphetamine users most often rated as 'very serious' or 'extremely serious' were in the areas of 'work and work opportunities', 'outlook on life', and 'friendship and social life'.

The most serious problems reported by frequent methamphetamine users were psychological rather than physical. About 40% of frequent methamphetamine users reported pre-existing psychological problems. Levels of psychological problems increased after using methamphetamine with about two-thirds of frequent methamphetamine users reporting 'anxiety', 'mood swings', 'short temper', 'paranoia', and 'depression'. Twenty-one percent of frequent methamphetamine users reported 'suicidal thoughts' and 13% 'suicide attempts' after using the drug.

Ninety-three percent of the frequent methamphetamine users interviewed considered methamphetamine to be 'more harmful' or 'much more harmful' than cannabis.

ATS and drug treatment services

The questions on dependency indicated that about one-fifth of frequent methamphetamine users were having difficulty controlling their methamphetamine use. However, about half of frequent methamphetamine users reported no difficulties with their methamphetamine use or ability to stop or go without.

Amphetamine was found to be impacting on alcohol and drug treatment services in New Zealand to the extent that about one in five patients now cite amphetamine, alone or in combination with other drugs, as their main substance use problem. This confirms that increases in amphetamine use in the general population are now translating into a sizeable increase in treatment demand for this drug type.

The size of the illicit market for ATS

The estimates of the dollar value of the illicit markets for amphetamine and ecstasy calculated here suggest that the combined value of these markets, approximately $168.3 million, approaches the dollar value of the entire illicit market for cannabis in New Zealand.

The seizure rates calculated for amphetamine and ecstasy indicate the authorities are seizing less than 10% of the trade in both drugs.

ATS and criminal offending

Amphetamine/ methamphetamine and crystal methamphetamine were the ATS drug types most commonly used by arrestees (41% and 11% used in the last year respectively). Twenty-one percent of arrestees had used amphetamine/ methamphetamine in the last month and 9% had used it just before committing their offence.

About a quarter of the arrestees who had used amphetamine/ methamphetamine in the 48 hours before being arrested indicated that the use of this drug had contributed entirely to the activities they were subsequently arrested for. Amphetamine/ methamphetamine and crystal methamphetamine (along with alcohol) were the drugs most likely to make arrestees feel angry. Crystal methamphetamine and amphetamine/ methamphetamine were the ATS drug types most likely to be combined with driving, with 34% and 16% of arrestees respectively doing 'some' of their driving while under the influence of these drugs respectively.

More arrestees had had a friend arrested for an amphetamine offence than for a cannabis offence in the last month (17% vs. 14%).

The illicit amphetamine market was the illicit drug market which arrestees most clearly identified as violent.

Procurement of ATS drugs

The typical dollar amount spent on amphetamine by arrestees was $350 compared to only $20 for cannabis. Those arrestees purchasing amphetamine purchased the drug less frequently, used a smaller number of sellers, and took longer to complete a purchase than arrestees purchasing cannabis. Only 5% of the arrestees purchasing amphetamine, compared to about half of the arrestees purchasing cannabis, purchased their respective drugs from a 'tinny house'. The arrestees purchasing amphetamine were more likely to purchase from a 'private house' or 'outdoor area'. About half of the arrestees buying amphetamine contacted their sellers by mobile phone or texting, while nearly two thirds of the arrestees purchasing cannabis visited a house or flat. All the amphetamine sellers reported selling only to 'close friends and family members', whereas cannabis sellers sold at least 'some' of cannabis to 'casual acquaintances' and 'complete strangers'.

One third of the frequent methamphetamine users interviewed had sold methamphetamine and about one in five had manufactured, or exchanged, it for stolen property at some stage. About 40% of the frequent methamphetamine users had earned income from illegal activities in the last six months with drug dealing the most common type of illegal activity. The average dollar amount earned from illegal activities was $24,000.

Recent trends in methamphetamine use

The majority of all three key informant groups surveyed (i. e. drug enforcement, drug treatment and regular methamphetamine users) reported there had been an increase in, either the use of methamphetamine or the demand for methamphetamine treatment in the last six months. However, the regular methamphetamine user key informants placed the greatest qualification on this picture of increasing use, with 22% reporting 'no change' and 21% reporting a 'decrease' in methamphetamine use (58% reporting an 'increase').

The new methamphetamine user groups most commonly reported by all three KI groups were 'teenage users' and 'business people'. User key informants also noted more 'young women', 'lower socio-economic' and 'Maori/ Polynesian' users. Treatment key informants commonly noticed more 'young women' users.

There was strong agreement among all three key informant groups that 'smoking' was the most common mode of methamphetamine administration, with 'snorting' and 'injecting' the next most common. All three key informant groups reported more 'smoking' and more 'intravenous' methamphetamine use.

The overwhelming majority from all three groups described the availability of methamphetamine as either 'very easy' or 'easy'. Three-quarters of drug enforcement and over half of drug treatment key informants believed the availability of methamphetamine had become 'easier' in the last six months. User key informants were much more circumspect with only 26% indicating that the availability of methamphetamine had become 'easier' in the last six months and most saying availability was the 'same' compared to six months ago. Eighteen percent of user key informants thought the availability of methamphetamine had become 'harder'.

All three key informant groups noted more of a 'cross section' of people now selling methamphetamine. Many user (47%) and drug enforcement (24%) key informants reported the 'repackaging' of methamphetamine into smaller weights at lower prices.

Both user and drug treatment key informants were most likely to report the 'same' level of arrests for methamphetamine offences. However, about one-third of both key informant groups indicated that 'more' of the methamphetamine users they know of had been arrested in the last six months.

All three groups of key informants were most likely to report increased 'violent crime' and increased 'property crime' by methamphetamine users. Enforcement key informants also reported increases in 'burglary', 'domestic violence' and 'fraud' by methamphetamine users.

The reports of the key informants suggest that the greater vigilance now exercised over the sale of pseudo-ephedrine based flu products from chemists has reduced the attractiveness of this source of amphetamine precursors and created a need for alternative strategies.

Enforcement key informants indicated high levels of involvement by organised criminal groups in the importation, manufacture and sale of methamphetamine in New Zealand. Apart from importation, where 'Asian triads' were identified as a leading group, three local and established gangs (the 'Mongrel Mob', 'Black Power' and the 'Tribesmen') were identified as the groups most often involved in the methamphetamine trade in New Zealand. The 'Hells Angels' and 'Headhunters' were also commonly mentioned.

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Table of contents

Preface
Acknowledgements
Executive Summary
Key findings
1: Introduction
2: Amphetamine Type Stimulants (ATS) in New Zealand: Secondary Analysis of the 2001 National Drug Survey
3: ATS in Australia
4: The dollar value and seizure rates of the illicit markets for ecstasy and amphetamine in New Zealand
5: A survey of frequent methamphetamine users in Auckland
6: Recent trends in drug treatment in New Zealand: The impact of amphetamine
7: Trends in methamphetamine use in New Zealand: Findings from key informant surveys of drug enforcement officers, drug treatment workers and methamphetamine users
8: A Local Pilot of the New Zealand Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (NZ-ADAM) System
9: Conclusions
References
Appendices

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