New Zealand Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (NZ-ADAM) Annual Report 2007
Jim Hales and Jane Manser
Health Outcomes International
October 2007
New Zealand Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (NZ-ADAM) is a programme
which seeks to measure drug and alcohol use among people who have
recently been apprehended by Police. The programme operates at four
sites (Whangarei, Henderson, Hamilton and Dunedin), and is conducted by
Health Outcomes International (HOI) under contract to NZ Police. The
programme is managed by NZ Police National Head Quarters.
This is the second annual report for NZ-ADAM, covering the twelve
months from 1 July 2006 to 30 June 2007. Trend data is also presented in
some instances covering the period since the inception of the programme
across all participating sites in July 2005.
Executive Summary
The NZ-ADAM Programme
The New Zealand Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (NZ-ADAM) programme
measures drug and alcohol use among people who have recently been
apprehended and detained in watch houses by police. NZ Police funds
NZ-ADAM data collection at four sites (Whangarei, Henderson, Hamilton
and Dunedin). Health Outcomes International (HOI) has been contracted by
NZ Police to collect and analyse data for the programme. The programme
is managed by NZ Police National Head Quarters.
Participants in the NZ-ADAM programme comprise persons detained at
the participating watch house who consent to participate at the time the
interviewers are present, except those who meet the following exclusion
criteria:
- Persons less than 17 years of age.
- Persons unfit for interview due to the effects of alcohol/drugs/medication.
- Persons considered unsuitable to participate due to mental health issues.
- Persons unable to complete the interview due to language difficulties.
- Persons considered to have violent tendencies.
- Persons who have been held in custody in excess of 48 hours.
- Persons deemed ineligible for other reasons at the discretion of watch house personnel.
This is the second annual report for NZ-ADAM and covers the operation
of the second full year of the NZ-ADAM programme in which all four
participating sites (Whangarei, Henderson, Hamilton and Dunedin) were
covered. The period commenced on 1 July 2006 and continued through to 30
June 2007. In some instances, the report presents trend data for the
complete two years of operation of the programme
Programme Throughput and Participation
A total of 2,386 detainees were available to participate in NZ-ADAM
during the current year. Of these, 989 met the inclusion criteria and
agreed to be interviewed, with 895 completing the interview. A total of
565 (63%) interviewees agreed to provide a urine sample, and of these,
496 provided samples acceptable for analysis.
The proportion of available detainees who proceeded to interview
varied across the four sites, Whangarei 55%, Henderson and Dunedin each
36%, and Hamilton 31%. Reasons for the variation in participation rates
included such factors as detainee profiles, and how busy the watch
houses were at the time the interviewers were present.
The highest numbers of participants were obtained over the weekend
period (Friday through to Sunday) with over 50% of participants
interviewed during this period, and with just over a third presenting on
Sundays.
Demography
Of the 895 interviewees, 87.3% were male and 12.5% were female; mean
age was 26.7 years (males 26.7 years, females 27.7 years). The majority
(60.8%) reported that they were single and had never married (59.5% of
males and 65.2% of females). Fifty-two percent reported being New
Zealand Ma-ori, 32.7% identified as New Zealand European/Pakeha and 2.9%
as Samoan. Forty-four percent had completed some high school but did not
complete compulsory years, and 24% completed compulsory high school.
Almost 30% were working in full-time employment and a further 11% were
working part-time, whilst 26% were unemployed but looking for work and
6% were unemployed and not looking for work.
Employment and Income
The majority (62%) of respondents who were employed (either full-time
or part-time) worked as manual workers/labourers and a further 23%
worked as craftsmen/skilled tradesmen.
The most common sources of income in the 30 days prior to detention
were welfare or government benefits (45% of respondents), family or
friends (37%), and full-time work (32%). Of all sources of income
identified, 17% related to illegal activities.
Almost one quarter (24%) of participants had received Unemployment
Benefits in the last 12 months and 19% had received Sickness or Invalids
Benefits. However, almost half (42%) reported not having received any
government benefits in the previous 12 months.
Living Arrangements
Just over half (55%) of participants reported living in someone
else?s house or apartment most of the time in the last 30 days, whilst
38% reported living in their own house or apartment. Just over half of
those interviewed (55%) reported that between 3 and 5 persons lived in
their household, including themselves. Seventeen percent indicated that
they lived in a household of 6 to 10 people and a further 16% lived with
one other person. Two-thirds (66%) reported that they had no dependent
children, 28% reported having between 1 and 3 dependent children and 6%
reported having more than 4 dependent children.
Drug and Alcohol and Psychiatric Hospital Treatment
Thirty-four percent of those interviewed had at some time
participated in drug or alcohol treatment programmes, and 6% were
currently participating in a treatment programme. Among those
interviewed, 8% reported having previously been a patient in a
psychiatric ward or hospital for an overnight stay or longer.
Offending
The most common first recorded charge was "Offence against Justice",
with 45% of all interviewees being charged with this offence, which
includes "Breach of Bail". Other main first recorded offence types were
"Serious Assaults" (9% of participants) and "Burglary" (6%).
Just under a third (32%) of those interviewed reported that they had
not been previously arrested during the preceding 12 months; 58%
reported having been arrested between 1 and 5 times; and 6% reported
having been arrested between 6 and 10 times. Only 3% reported having
been arrested more than 10 times in the previous 12 months.
Positive Drug Tests
Of the 496 participants who provided a usable urine sample, 351 (71%)
tested positive to one or more illicit drugs. Urinalysis indicated that
56% of the participants providing a usable sample tested positive to one
drug, 6% tested positive to two drugs, 7% tested positive to three drugs
and 2% tested positive to more than three drugs.
Cannabis was the most commonly detected illicit drug, with 69% of the
samples testing positive to cannabinoids. Amphetamines were the second
most commonly detected drug (11%). A range of other substances were
detected at rates below 4%.
Self-Reported Drug Use
Only 4 participants (0.4%) reported that they had never tried any
drug, including alcohol, and only 6% reported having tried only one
drug. Just over a quarter (28%) reported having tried two drugs, but the
majority (66%) reported having tried three or more drugs. Alcohol and
cannabis had almost universally been tried, by 99% and 93% of
participants respectively, and were also the most commonly used drugs in
the 30 day and the 48 hour periods preceding detention. Whilst
hallucinogens had been tried by more participants (52%) than
methamphetamines (44%), amphetamines (36%) or ecstasy (33%),
methamphetamines were reported to have been used by more participants
(18%) in the last 30 days than hallucinogens (7%) and amphetamines (6%)
or ecstasy (4%). Six percent of participants reported having used
methamphetamine in the 48 hours prior to detention, making it the third
most commonly used drug after alcohol and cannabis during this period.
Of those who had ever tried alcohol, 93% reported having first tried
it under the age of 18 years; 91% of those who had ever tried cannabis
also reported having first tried it aged less than 18 years. Similarly,
large proportions of those who had ever tried hallucinogens (61%),
amphetamines (49%), tranquilisers (43%), heroin (41%) or cocaine (35%)
had done so for the first time aged under 18 years. Conversely,
methamphetamines and methadone were most commonly first tried at over 20
years of age (45% each). First use of ecstasy was relatively evenly
distributed across the three age groups.
Alcohol was used by 730 participants at some time during the past 30
days, making it the most widely used drug, but cannabis (used by 597
participants) was the most frequently consumed drug, with 56% of users
reporting its use on 11 or more days out of the last 30 (41% reported
using on at least 21 days). Methamphetamines were reportedly used by a
relatively large number of participants (159) and also relatively
frequently, with 29% of users reporting its use on 11 or more days in
the last 30.
An analysis of the demographic and other characteristics of those who
reported the use of cannabis or methamphetamine in the previous 30 days
indicated that methamphetamine users had the following characteristics
compared to cannabis users:
- A slightly lower proportion are male (86% compared to 89%);
- Are a little older (27.4 years compared to 25.5 years);
- Are slightly less likely to be of Maori descent (49% compared to 54%);
- Are less likely to be working full-time (24% compared to 28%);
- Used for the first time at an older average age (21.8 years compared to 13.3 years of age);
- Used less often in the last month (9 days compared to 16.2 days); and
- Are more likely to sell drugs to others (13% compared to 5%).
Corroboration of Self Reported Drug Use and Urinalysis Results
The corroboration of self-reported drug use and positive urinalysis
results was highest for cannabis, with 90% of those testing positive
also reporting its use in the previous 30 days, and 63% reporting its
use in the previous 48 hours. Among those who tested positive for
methamphetamines the corresponding figures were 69% and 40%
respectively.
Drug Dependence
Overall, 37% of all participants reported having felt dependent on at
least one drug (including alcohol) in the past 12 months. Almost a
quarter (24%) of participants indicated that they had felt dependent on
cannabis in the past 12 months, whilst 15% reported a dependence on
alcohol and 7% reported a dependence on methamphetamines.
Drugs and Anger
The drugs most frequently reported to make users more or much more
likely to get angry were methamphetamines, amphetamines and alcohol.
Cannabis, tranquilisers and ecstasy were the drugs most frequently
reported to make users less or much less likely to get angry.
Drugs and Driving
Users of methadone, amphetamines, methamphetamines and cannabis most
often reported driving at least sometimes whilst under the influence.
The percentage (31%) of alcohol users who reported driving while under
the influence was lower than the percentage of users of each of these
drugs who reported driving whilst under the influence.
Reported Drug Use and Criminal Activities
Of the 401 participants detained for an offence "Against Justice"
(mainly breach of bail), 91% reported using alcohol in the previous 12
months, 77% reported using cannabis in the previous 12 months and 52%
reported using methamphetamines in the previous 12 months. In addition,
84% reported using alcohol in the previous 30 days, 68% reported using
cannabis in the previous 30 days and 16% reported using methamphetamines
in the previous 30 days.
Forty-eight percent of participants reported that they had been using
at least one drug at the time of their arrest. Thirty-six percent
reported using alcohol, 18% cannabis and 6% reported using
methamphetamines.
More than 50% of users of all drugs other than cannabis indicated
that their drug use had contributed to their involvement in criminal
activity to some extent. Twenty-seven percent of cannabis users reported
that their drug use contributed to between "some" and "all" of their
criminal activities.
Just over a third (34%) of participants reported that "none at all"
of their criminal offending was caused by the need to buy illegal drugs
and a half (51%) responded that they did not commit criminal offences to
obtain money. However, 13% of participants reported that their offending
was caused to some degree by their need to buy illegal drugs.
Buying and Selling Drugs
Just over a half (55%) of the participants reported that they had not
spent any money on illicit drugs in the 30 days prior to their
detention. However, 19% reported spending $100 or less; 6% spent between
$101 and $200; 9% spent between $201 and $500; and 6% spent between $501
and $1,000. A small minority (3%), claimed to have spent over $2,000 on
illicit drugs in the past 30 days.
- Among all participants, 70% reported that they had acquired (but not necessarily paid for) illicit drugs in the 30 days prior to their detention. A majority (66%) reported having acquired cannabis during this period; 21% reported acquiring amphetamines (including methamphetamines); 5% had acquired ecstasy; and 3% heroin.
An analysis of site specific data highlights the fact that drug use
and drug acquisition tend to be localised activities occurring in
markets that are subject to local conditions and influences.
A private house or flat was shown to be the main location at which
drugs were acquired across all drug types, particularly amphetamines.
Overall, cannabis was the drug acquired from the widest range of
locations. The methods by which participants contacted the person from
whom they last acquired drugs varied by drug type.
Nine percent of all participants reported having sold cannabis; 4%
reported having sold amphetamines (including methamphetamines); and 1%
reported having sold ecstasy. Less than 1% of respondents reported
having sold heroin.
- Selling drugs was considered to present more risks from Police activity than buying in all drug markets.
- The amphetamine market was reported by participants to involve the greatest risk from Police activities whether buying or selling and was also perceived to be the most violent illegal drug market.
- Buying cannabis was perceived by participants to be the drug-related transaction at least risk from Police activities.
- The cannabis and ecstasy markets were perceived to be the least violent of the four drug markets.
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Table of contents
Contents
Executive Summary
Introduction
1.1 International Programmes
1.2 The NZ-ADAM Programme
1.3 Scope of this Report
Outline of Activities
2.1 Development and Preparation
2.2 Data Collection
2.3 Report Production
2.4 On-Line Access
2.5 Future Directions
Results Across All Sites July 2006 - June 2007
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Programme Throughput and Participation
3.3 Participant Profile
3.4 Requests for Urine Samples and Urinalysis Results
3.5 Self-Reported Drug Use
3.6 Comparative Profile
3.7 Reported Drug Use and Criminal Activities
3.8 Acquiring Drugs
3.9 Selling Drugs
3.10 Perceived Risks of Drug Markets
NZ-ADAM and DUMA Comparisons
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Profile of Participants
4.3 Drug Use Among Detainees
Appendices
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